《平面国》的第一个续集是C. H. 辛顿的《平面国的一段插曲:或,平面民族如何发现第三维度》(1907),该书意识到了艾伯特原版《平面国》的一个缺陷。艾伯特对平面国的描述,连同他的插图,给人一种俯视形状在平面上移动的印象——角色进入像平面图一样显示的房屋,内部布局如同图表。由于艾伯特的角色像在背景上移动的图形,这个世界实际上存在两个层次:背景及其上的物体,这使得它并非完全平坦。辛顿在其引言中间接承认了重新构想平面国的必要性:
在一项惊人的次级创作壮举中,A. K. 迪尤德尼描绘了阿尔德——一个拥有独特物理法则、化学、生物学、行星科学、天文学、生物群落、文化及科技的二维盘状世界,所有设计均适配二维世界的运行规则。作为计算机科学家兼数学家(并在致谢中提及的其他学科同事协助下),迪尤德尼深入探讨了原子、电磁力、光波与声波、湍流等物理现象在二维维度中的运作方式,及其对阿尔德居民恩萨纳人生存的影响。他针对门扉、电线、铰链、齿轮等基础技术物件提供了适用于二维世界的解决方案与实用设计,并详细描述并绘制了钟表、印刷机、陆地与空中交通工具、蒸汽机等更复杂的二维机械(见图3.3)。他还阐释并图解了包括推进系统、消化机制、细胞分裂在内的二维生物机理。基于这些设定,恩萨纳文化应运而生,形成了独特的传统与习俗,例如相向而行的旅人相遇时谁该从谁身上跨过,或乘客搭乘交通工具的先后次序。
邓萨尼的神话体系同样启发了J. R. R. 托尔金,他构建了一套精密且内在统一的传奇体系(尤以身后出版的《精灵宝钻》(1977)与《未完的传说》(1980)为代表)。然而作为罗马天主教徒,托尔金不愿让自己的神话体系与基督教神学相冲突,因此着力设计出能与之兼容的传奇构架,自称这是"一种一神论但具有'次创造'特质的神话"。[49]其神话体系的顶端是上帝(埃如,意为"独一者"),他创造了维拉——类天使的受造存在,虽占据"神祇"之位却非真神,其麾下还有迈雅侍奉。在创世故事《爱努的大乐章》中,维拉之一米尔寇播下不谐之音,堕落之后成为对抗维拉计划的邪恶敌手。数十年来,托尔金在完善传奇体系的过程中不断权衡其神学意涵,对包括邪恶本质、"魔法"定义、死亡观念在内的诸多神话与超自然议题进行了持续修正。
在构建虚构神话方面,托尔金堪称纯粹主义者。他的书信集揭示了其对自身神话体系的思考,包含对未竟作品的批判。[50]尽管欣赏C. S. 路易斯《太空三部曲》的首部《沉寂的星球之外》(1938),托尔金却评价该三部曲的神话构架"处于萌芽状态且未臻成熟"[51],并写道:
"我始终反感他那种亚瑟王-拜占庭风格的神话体系,仍认为这毁了C. S. L.(一个极易受感染,甚至过于易感的人)三部曲的终章。"[52] 托尔金认为神话体系应自成一体,不满路易斯《纳尼亚传奇》糅合多元神话元素的做法(如北欧神话的矮人、巨龙与巨人;希腊罗马神话的巴克斯、西勒诺斯、农牧神与半人马;会说话的海狸;以及圣诞老人),写道:"令人遗憾的是,'纳尼亚'及C. S. L. 这部分作品始终游离于我的共鸣范围之外,正如我的多数作品也处于他的理解范围之外。"[53]
Charles Ischir Defontenay, Star (Psi Cassiopeia): The Marvelous History of One of the Worlds of Outer Space, first published in 1854, adapted by P. J. Sokolowski, Encino, California: Black Coat Press, 2007, page 24.
From the short story “Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius” in Jorge Luis Borges, Fictions, 1944, reprinted in Jorge Luis Borges, Collected Fictions, translated by Andrew Hurley, New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1998, pages 71–72.
From J. R. R. Tolkien, “On Fairy Stories”, as reprinted in Tree and Leaf, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964, page 64.
George Lucas, from an interview by Claire Clouzot in Ecran, September 15, 1977, pages 33–41, and later translated from the French by Alisa Belanger and reprinted in Sally Kline, editor, George Lucas: Interviews, Jackson, Mississippi: University of Mississippi Press, 1999, where the quote appears on page 58.
J. R. R. Tolkien, as quoted in Humphrey Carpenter, Tolkien: A Biography, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1977, page 195. The quote comes from a January 1971 radio interview by the BBC.
Michael O. Riley, Oz and Beyond: The Fantasy World of L. Frank Baum, Lawrence, Kansas: The University Press of Kansas, 1997, pages 176–177.
Ibid., pages 208–209.
Both quotes are from Diana Wynne Jones, The Tough Guide to Fantasyland, New York, New York: DAW Books, 1996, page 11.
Michael O. Riley, Oz and Beyond: The Fantasy World of L. Frank Baum, Lawrence, Kansas: The University Press of Kansas, 1997, pages 186–187.
Thomas More, Utopia, edited by George M. Logan and Robert M. Adams, New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, page 125.
As described by Culley Carson-Grefe:
The very novel we read takes its existence from a clever manipulation of the meaning of the word hole. The history of the land of Archaeo—the book we read—has supposedly been reconstructed by searching out what was lacking in official history: everything that was missing was Archaeo. Because Archaeo represented such a threat to its neighbors, all references to it had been eliminated. ... This supposedly verifiable lacuna assumes a wholeness to history impossible to justify in other than fanciful terms. At the same time, the very idea of the hole takes on an entirely new meaning. No longer an emptiness, a mere absence, it is a cutting out, an extraction.
From Culley Carson-Grefe, “Hole Studies: French Feminist Fiction”, available at: http://crisolenguas.uprrp.edu/Articles/Hole%20Studies%20French%20Feminist%20Fiction.pdf.
See page 10 and pages 111–113 of Garrison Keillor, Lake Wobegon Days, New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1985.
George Barr McCutcheon, Graustark: A Story of a Love Behind a Throne, Chicago, Illinois: Herbert S. Stone & Company, 1903, page 61.
See Ricardo Padrón, “Mapping Imaginary Worlds” in James R. Akerman and Robert W. Karrow Jr., editors, Maps: Finding Our Place in the World, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2007, page 261.
See John Knoll, with J. W. Rinzler, Creating the Worlds of Star Wars: 365 Days, New York, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2005, days 167 and 200.
The maps by Pauline Baynes, “M. Blackburn”, and Richard Caldwell can be found in Akerman and Karrow (see endnote 14), Barbara Strachey’s maps in her book Journeys of Frodo (1981), Karen Wynn Fonstad’s maps in the two editions of The Atlas of Middle-Earth (1991 and 2001), Shelby Shapiro’s maps in certain reissues of Tolkien’s books, James Cook’s maps in Alberto Manguel and Gianni Guadalupi’s The Dictionary of Imaginary Places (2000), and John Howe’s maps in Brian Sibley’s The Maps of Tolkien’s Middle-earth (2003).
See Michael W. Perry, Untangling Tolkien: A Chronology and Commentary for The Lord of the Rings, Seattle, Washington: Inkling Books, 2003; Kevin J. Anderson and Daniel Wallace, Star Wars: The Essential Chronology, New York, New York: Del Rey, 2000; and Michael and Denise Okuda, Star Trek Chronology: The History of the Future, New York, New York: Pocket Books, 1993 (first edition), 1996 (second edition).
John H. Raleigh, The Chronicle of Leopold and Molly Bloom: Ulysses as Narrative, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977.
Constantino Baikouzis and Marcelo O. Magnasco, “Is an eclipse described in the Odyssey?”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, (June 24, 2008), page 8823, available at http://www.pnas.org/content/105/26/8823 (accessed March 23, 2010).
John Clute, entry for “Time Abyss” in John Clute and John Grant, editors, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1999, pages 946–947.
Richard C. West, “The Interface Structure of The Lord of the Rings”, in Jared Lobell, editor, The Tolkien Compass, Chicago, Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 1975 (first edition), 2003 (second edition), page 76–77.
George MacDonald, At the Back of the North Wind, New York, New York: Schocken Books, 1978, page 88.
Walter Hooper, C. S. Lewis: Companion & Guide, New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1996, pages 420–423.
Brian Stableford, The Dictionary of Science Fiction Places, New York, New York: The Wonderland Press, 1999, page 34.
Rick Sternbach and Michael Okuda, Star Trek: The Next Generation Technical Manual, New York and London: Pocket Books, 1991. See “Relativistic Considerations” on page 78 and “Warp Propulsion Systems” on pages 54–74.
See Tom Shippey, J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century, Boston Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001, pages 243–244. Shippey quotes the insult and describes its context, concluding, “But the subtlety and the tension depend on carrying in one’s head a string of distinctions between elvish groups, and a whole series of pedigrees and family relationships. The audiences of Icelandic sagas could do this, but readers of modern novels are not used to it, and easily miss most of what is intended.” (page 244).
Although Dooku became the padawan of Master Thame Cerulian at the age of thirteen, he trained with Yoda before this and could still be considered an apprentice of Yoda’s; Yoda even refers to Dooku as his old padawan in Attack of the Clones (2002).
Joshua Davis, “Second Coming”, Wired, December 2009, page 192.
See Harald Stümpke, Bau und Leben der Rhinogradentia with preface and illustrations by Gerolf Steiner, Stuttgart, Germany: Fischer, 1961, and Harald Stümpke, Anatomie et Biologie des Rhinogrades—Un Nouvel Ordre De Mammifères, Issy-les-Moulineaux, France: Masson, 1962. Also see J. B. Post, An Atlas of Fantasy, revised edition, New York, New York: Ballantine Books, 1979, page 152.
Raymond King Cummings, “Chapter XIX. The City of Arite” of The Girl in the Golden Atom (1922).
C. H. Hinton, An Episode of Flatland: Or, How a Plane Folk Discovered the Third Dimension, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Limited: Bloomsbury, England, 1907, pages 1–2.
Dionys Burger, Sphereland: A Fantasy about Curved Spaces and an Expanding Universe, New York, New York: Quill/HarperResource, 2001, page 61. Sphereland was originally published in Dutch in 1965.
A. K. Dewdney, The Planiverse: Computer Contact with a Two-Dimensional World, New York: Copernicus, an imprint of Springer-Verlag, 2001 (original edition 1984), pages ix and xi.
Charles Ischir Defontenay, Star (Psi Cassiopeia): The Marvelous History of One of the Worlds of Outer Space, first published in 1854, adapted by P. J. Sokolowski, Encino, California: Black Coat Press, 2007, page 167.
Frank Herbert, Dune, New York: Berkley Books, 1977 (originally published by the Chilton Book Company, 1965), page 514.
Arika Okrent, In the Land of Invented Languages, New York, New York: Spiegel & Grau, 2009.
Lin Carter devotes an entire chapter of his book Imaginary Worlds to a discussion of good and bad names and how they function; see Lin Carter, “A Local Habitation and a Name: Some Observations on Neocognomia”, Imaginary Worlds, New York, New York: Ballantine Books, 1973, pages 192–212.
For lists of words with different meanings in different languages, see Adam Jacot de Boinod, The Meaning of Tingo: And Other Extraordinary Words from Around the World, New York, New York: The Penguin Press, 2006. For example, “dad” in Albanian means “wet nurse or babysitter”, “babe” in SiSwati means “father or minister”, and “mama” in Georgian means “father” (page 81). Invented languages that combine invented roots to make words can inadvertantly result in words with unwanted real-language connotations; for example, in Tolkien’s work, the character Celeborn (“silver tree”) has a name that in Telerin Quenya translates as “Teleporno”.
See “Earth: Final Conflict” in Tim Conley and Stephen Cain, Encyclopedia of Fictional & Fantastic Languages, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006, page 55.
George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1949, pages 51 and 53.
Thomas More, Utopia, edited by George M. Logan and Robert M. Adams, New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, page 123.
Margaret Cavendish, The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing-World, 1666.
Tim Conley and Stephen Cain, Encyclopedia of Fictional & Fantastic Languages, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006, page 13.
For example, in the Star Wars galaxy, words taken from Primary World languages are often used as names; for example, Tatooine (from Tataouine (also transliterated “Tatooine”), the Arabic name of the capital of the Tataouine Governate in Tunisia, where Star Wars was filmed), Vader (Dutch for “father”), Yoda (similar to “Yoddha”, Sanskrit for “great warrior”), Padmé (Sanskrit for “Lotus”), Amidala (a feminine form of the Buddha Amida), Leia (Assyrian for “royalty”), Dooku (similar to “doku”, Japanese for “poison”), and so on. Lucas even takes names directly from existing English words (Bail, Bane, Coruscant, Mace, Maul, Rancor, Solo, and so forth) or makes names from obvious variations from them (Ephant Mon (from “Elephant Man”), Sidious (from “insidious”), or Tyranus (tyrannous, tyrant), and so on). While the use of foreign words can add meaning to names, names whose etymologies are too obvious, or call attention to their origins too blatantly, may run the risk of undermining the verisimilitude of a world.
J. R. R. Tolkien, “A Secret Vice”, in The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays, edited by Christopher Tolkien, London, England: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997 (originally published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1983), pages 198–223.
Pierre Berton, The Secret World of OG, Toronto, Ontario: McClelland and Stewart, 1961.
From Lord Dunsany, “Of the Making of the Worlds” in The Gods of Pegāna (1905).
From Letter 181 of Humphrey Carpenter, editor, The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981, page 235.
Ibid., see Letters 15, 25, 31, 109, 153, 154, 156, 163, 165, 200, 211, 212, and especially 131, 144, and 181.
Ibid., from Letter 276, page 361.
Ibid., from Letter 259, page 349.
Ibid., from Letter 265, page 352.
Stephen Prickett, Victorian Fantasy, Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1979, page 229.
Other Bible stories are also used for inspiration: in Defontenay’s Star (1854), when the Starians are wiped out, Ramzuel escapes in an abare (spaceship) with his family and later his descendents become the new Starian people; and Book IV is even named “Exodus and Deuteronomy”.
From Letter 142 of Humphrey Carpenter, editor, The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981, page 172.
Lin Carter, Imaginary Worlds: The Art of Fantasy, New York, New York: Ballantine Books, page 180.
From Letter 169 of Humphrey Carpenter, editor, The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981, page 224.
Diana Wynne Jones, The Tough Guide to Fantasyland, New York, New York: DAW Books, Inc., 1996, page 20.
From Letter 180 of Humphrey Carpenter, editor, The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981, page 231.
Philip K. Dick, “How to Build a Universe That Doesn’t Fall Apart Two Days Later”, 1978, in Philip K. Dick, I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon, New York, New York: Doubleday, 1985, pages 4–5.
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